Digital Document (pdf, doc, ppt, txt, etc.)

Joel D1, McCarthy MM2.

Abstract

Understanding the multiplicity of ways in which sex can alter the brain is essential to crafting policies and treatments that are beneficial for all human beings. This is particularly true for the field of neuropsychopharmacology, as many neuropsychiatric disorders exhibit gender bias in the frequency, severity, or response to treatment. The goal of this circumspective is to provide two views on the current state of the art of the relations between sex and the brain, relations that are studied almost exclusively by comparing females and males on specific end points, from gene expression to behavior. We start by suggesting a framework for defining what is being measured and what it means. We suggest that 'sex differences' can be classified on four dimensions: (1) persistent vs transient across the lifespan; (2) context independent vs dependent; (3) dimorphic vs continuous; and (4) a direct vs an indirect consequence of sex. To accurately classify a sex difference along these dimensions, one may need to compare females and males under varied conditions. We next discuss current data on the mechanisms of sexual differentiation of the brain and on sex differences in the brain to conclude that the brain of each male and female is a mosaic of relative masculinization, feminization, and sameness, which theoretically could produce an infinite variety of individuals. We also raise the possibility that sex differences in the brain are canalized, which may act to both enhance and restrain variation between males and females. We end by discussing ways to consider sex when studying neuropsychiatric disorders.Neuropsychopharmacology advance online publication, 22 June 2016; doi:10.1038/npp.2016.79.

At a Glance

Gender analyses are mandatory

For many years now, the promotion of gender equality through gender mainstreaming  has been a key strategy in international cooperation. Many of GIZ’s commissioning parties are committed to promoting gender equality, and gender aspects play an important  role in programming, designing and planning measures. For example, the commission  award criteria of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ, 2001) clearly state that a gender analysis must be conducted at the start  of a new bilateral development cooperation project. Gender analysis is also a key priority within the framework of GIZ’s gender strategy.  Since February 2011, one of the aims of the approval of the offer design (ZAK) meetings  is to review whether a gender analysis has been conducted during the appraisal and of- fer design stage and how the results have been integrated into the objectives system  and into the methodological approach. If no gender analysis has been conducted, the  ZAK committee stipulates that one be carried out.

Gender analyses provide recommendations for the methodological  approach and for the objectives system. They provide a basis for  awarding the gender marker

In business with BMZ, GIZ complies with the criteria laid down by the OECD’s Develop- ment Assistance Committee (OECD-DAC). These demand that the impacts that measures  will have on gender equality must be assessed before the gender marker is awarded.  This means that, ideally, a gender analysis should be incorporated into appraisals and  be carried out before the commission is awarded. Conducting a gender analysis should enable you to develop a gender-responsive objectives system and devise a methodological approach. Both are necessary to give equal  consideration to the needs of men and women within the scope of projects and programmes and to make necessary adjustments to the monitoring system. A gender anal- ysis should therefore present projects and programmes with recommendations for the  objectives system and for the methodological approach. This means that a gender analysis provides a basis for assigning the gender marker. Even if a project or programme  is deemed to have no gender relevance and is awarded the marker GG-0, the decision  to assign this marker must be based on the results of a gender analysis.

Gender analyses improve gender mainstreaming 

A gender analysis isn’t just a BMZ requirement; it provides a basis for systematically integrating gender into service delivery, and thus helps improve gender mainstreaming. Although it is supposed to be carried out before the start of a measure, it may make  more sense to schedule the analysis at a later stage or to carry out an additional, more  detailed analysis. It is never too late! Even if the gender marker has already been assigned, there is often further scope for increasing the gender responsiveness of the  strategies, approaches and methods used.

This policy brief provides evidence-based, concrete recommendations for national level policy makers and institutional science leaders on how to conceive, produce and disseminate gender statistics in Science, Technology and Innovation.

This policy brief provides evidence-based, concrete recommendations for national level policy makers and institutional science leaders on how to secure top-level institutional support for gender equality in research performing organisations (RPOs) and research funding organisations (RFOs).