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Gender inequality is not only a pressing moral and social issue but also a critical economic challenge. If women—who account for half the world’s working-age population—do not achieve their full economic potential, the global economy will suffer. While all types of inequality have economic consequences, in our new McKinsey Global Institute (MGI) report, The power of parity: How advancing women’s equality can add $12 trillion to global growth, we focus on the economic implications of lack of parity between men and women.

This article tested the hypothesis that role expectations may constrain or facilitate innovation. The case of female managers provided the context for this. Study 1 examined differential role expectations (for the roles of male and female managers) (N = 55), and Study 2 investigated the constraints of male and female manager roles on solution type and character. Using a focused interview format (N = 20), potential barriers to innovation were also examined. The results suggest that innovative solutions were attributed more often to a male than a female manager, whereas adaptive solutions were attributed more often to a female than a male manager. Risks identified as potential barriers to innovation among female managers included the risk attached to consequences of failure or mistake, the risk of criticism, and the risk of not receiving credit for ideas. However, differential role expectations did not have an impact on the production of actual solutions. The findings are discussed for their potential to complement existing research on role expectations and innovation as well as their implications for the development of a new research agenda.

The gender imbalance in STEM subjects dominates current debates about women’s underrepresentation in academia. However, women are well represented at the Ph.D. level in some sciences and poorly represented in some humanities (e.g., in 2011, 54% of U.S. Ph.D.’s in molecular biology were women versus only 31% in philosophy). We hypothesize that, across the academic spectrum, women are underrepresented in fields whose practitioners believe that raw, innate talent is the main requirement for success, because women are stereotyped as not possessing such talent. This hypothesis extends to African Americans’ underrepresentation as well, as this group is subject to similar stereotypes. Results from a nationwide survey of academics support our hypothesis (termed the field-specific ability beliefs hypothesis) over three competing hypotheses.

Background  “Gender” reflects social norms for women and men, whereas “sex” defines biological characteristics. Gender-related characteristics explain some differences in access to care for premature acute coronary syndrome (ACS); whether they are associated with cardiovascular outcomes is unknown.

Objectives  This study estimated associations between gender and sex with recurrent ACS and major adverse cardiac events (MACE) (e.g., ACS, cardiac mortality, revascularization) over 12 months in patients with ACS.

Methods  We studied 273 women and 636 men age 18 to 55 years from GENESIS-PRAXY (GENdEr and Sex determInantS of cardiovascular disease: from bench to beyond-Premature Acute Coronary SYndrome), a prospective observational cohort study, who were hospitalized for ACS between January 2009 and April 2013. Gender-related characteristics (e.g., social roles) were assessed using a self-administered questionnaire, and a composite measure of gender was derived. Outcomes included recurrent ACS and MACE over 12 months.

Results  Feminine roles and personality traits were associated with higher rates of recurrent ACS and MACE compared with masculine characteristics. This difference persisted for recurrent ACS, after multivariable adjustment (hazard ratio from score 0 to 100: 4.50; 95% confidence interval: 1.05 to 19.27), and was a nonstatistically significant trend for MACE (hazard ratio: 1.54; 95% confidence interval: 0.90 to 2.66). A possible explanation is increased anxiety, the only condition that was more prevalent in patients with feminine characteristics and that rendered the association between gender and recurrent ACS nonstatistically significant (hazard ratio: 3.56; 95% confidence interval: 0.81 to 15.61). Female sex was not associated with outcomes post-ACS.

Conclusions  Younger adults with ACS with feminine gender are at an increased risk of recurrent ACS over 12 months, independent of female sex.